Early+Latin+America

1) ESPIRIT on Spanish Colonies in America

 * E || **//__MI: The economy of the new world was soley based upon farming crops, and mining metals such as gold and the highly desired silver__//**


 * Spanish America was an agarian society, where 80% of the population lived and worked on the land
 * Indians continued to practice traditional agriculture and grew traditional crops of the region
 * As the population of the Indians dwindled, the Spanish soon established ranches and farms were established to replace the lost ones of the Indians


 * Spanish ranches and farms began to become an established settlement for agriculture as the native populations decreased
 * Family-owned estates produced grapes, grains, and live stock. The live stock rate rose as native population decreased
 * Native Americans were the main groups of laborers who worked on these agricultural estates, which were called **haciendas**


 * The rural estates became the primary power of the aristocracy emerging in the Americas
 * Only a small amount of crops such as sugar were exported to Europe from America, silver dominated exportation
 * Some regions still had natives farming on their own lands


 * Mining was an essential activity as it was what put Latin America into the world economy
 * Although some metals were kept as booty, most precious metals were sent across the Atlantic back to Spain
 * Some precious metals searched for were gold and silver


 * Silver formed Spain's wealth more than that of gold
 * Silver was discovered in parts of Mexico and Peru between 1545 and 1565
 * As a result of silver's success multiple towns were formed such as **Potosi** in upper Peru were developed for the main purpose of mining


 * Mining was provided originally by multiple workers
 * The early workers were American Indian slaves, and encomienda workers. They were later replaced by drafted workers.
 * Due to the good wages, many people volunteered to go into the dangerous mining profession


 * In 1580, silver mining depended on the process of amalgamation with mercury to extract silver from ore-bearing rock
 * Mercury became an importance in the process of silver mining, and soon a discovery of mercury at **Huancavelica** in Peru aided the production of silver
 * Mines were owned by individuals who sent 1/5 of the production to the government


 * America's trade with other parts of the world was restricted by Spain
 * Merchant guilds or **consulado** worked to ship goods to the new worlds
 * Ship fleets called **galleons** were used to carry silver belonging to crown back to Spain ||
 * S || **__//MI: Social organization was mostly based on ethnicity and race, little to no chance of social mobility.//__**
 * mixed marriages and informal, unions were common in the Americas
 * - due to mixed marriages there was a population growth of mestizos
 * - mestizos had a higher status than the Indians


 * A type of cast system
 * It was based on racial origins
 * Europeans and whites were at the top
 * blacks and native Americans were at the bottom
 * mixed races were in the middle-most wealthy merchants landowners bueacrats and ministers were white


 * Spanish peasants born in Spain who traveled to the new world gained a higher status and place in soceity becoming the nobility of the new world
 * The serf class that the peasants were originally apart of were replaced by the native peoples in the Americas
 * The Indians soon became the workers and took all the serf jobs originally availible ||
 * P || **//__MI: The colonies were governed by new government systems led by viceroys who acted as a representative of the king.__//**


 * Spain after being freed from Muslim control, was seperrated into segments
 * The first rulers of a some what united Spain, were **Ferdinand of Aragon** and **Isabella of Castile**
 * Christopher Columbus approached them about finding a trade route to India by sailing west


 * The expeditions to the new world led to interactions between the native people who had established empires
 * The conquistadors after capturing parts of the native empires, developed cities and soon established a governor (viceroy)
 * The people who went to the Americas, after conquering lands became the nobility of the region, as the natives were given the status of serf


 * Colonies began to become established as the Spanish settled more in America
 * Colonies such as **Hispaniola** in the **Caribbean** where centers in which the Spanish broke off from when entering the Americas and broke off heading north to Mexico and south to South America like Peru
 * Spanish faced challenges when making colonies unlike those in Europe, such as hurricanes and resistance of natives


 * The treaty of Tordesillas defined the spheres of influence that Portugal and Castile (Spain) held
 * Spain's bureaucratic system built on a juridical core staffed by **letrados** or lawyers from a university
 * The **Recopilacion** codified the laws into the basis for government into the colonies


 * The king of Spain ruled the colonies through the **Council of the Indies** which issued laws and advised him
 * Spain created the **viceroyalties** which were based in Mexico City and Lima, they were high ranking nobles directly representative to the king
 * Subdivided into 10 judicial divisions controlled by the superior court, or **audiencias** ||
 * I || __//**MI: After the Spanish arrival in America, the Spanish had conflicts with the indgienous people of the Americas. After revoluts with the natives and control developed over them as they became employed as serfs in the social structure. Spain monetered the trade occuring in the Americas wih other nations.**//__


 * Spanish conquistadors came into the Americas and soon defeated the native people
 * Hernan Cortes attacks the Aztecs in central Mexico, he defeats them at their capital city by capturing the Aztec ruler, **Moctezuma II** and killing him
 * Francesco Pizaro attacks the Incas in South America, and defeats them as well


 * After the fall of the native empires, originally the Indians were given to the conquerors as part of the encomienda system of labor
 * Soon some members of the Spanish conquerors developed mixed feelings about the system of labor and mistreatment of the Indian people
 * Spanish crown agrees to limit the amount of abuse and conquest, however the period of conquest was already over


 * Native people still were used as the main force of work for some time
 * After the moderation of the native people, some still continued to own land and continue traditional farming until replaced by Spanish ranches
 * Indians soon began to work on estates, and even mined for a living, but mistreatment still occurred


 * Although the period of conquest ended, by the end of it most of the native populations were vanishing
 * Indians suffered from being overworked by the Spanish, and as a result died
 * Disease was also a weapon unknown to the Europeans, that wiped out the native people drastically


 * The Americas began to enter the world economy, although heavily moderated by Spain
 * Americas sent silver, and sugar as products back to Spain to be traded
 * Fleets traveled from the Phillipines and Europe, to deliver luxury goods to the Americas, and bring the American goods back to their lands ||
 * R || __//**Mi: The Spanish saw Christianity as superior to the beliefs of the native people, and a new church structure formed in the new world**//__


 * One of the rights the Spanish used to settle in the new world was the fact that Christianity was a divine supreme religion over the Indians
 * Missionaries attempted to convert native people to Christianity
 * Churches establishes in villages and setting up missionaries


 * Pope justified Christianity over people of the the new lands
 * Some religious missionaries became defenders of the Indian people and culture
 * Bernardino de Sahgun became in expert in the Nahuatl language and composed a bilingual encyclopedia of Aztec culture


 * Some clergy detested foreign culture and religion
 * Yucatan burned ancient Mayan texts and tortured Mayans who backslid from Christianity


 * Missionaries began to replace core structures of the church in the New World
 * Archbishops sat in major capitials and developed the church hierarchy
 * Spanish crown nominated church people to hold positions who supported the state ||
 * I || __//**MI: The native people had many styles of literature and writting, the Spanish brought the printing press to America to help spread intellectual ideas**//__


 * The printing press in America helped lead to multiple religious texts being copied at high rates
 * Allowed faster spread of Christianity in the New world


 * Religious books, as well as works of history


 * Poetry and philosophy of law


 * New languages being learned from Indian cultures ||
 * T || __//**MI: Spasnish tools were more advanced than that of the native people's.**//__


 * European technologies such as guns and other devices were brought over to the new world while the Spanish began to settle
 * The more advanced tools used by the Europeans beat the outdated tools of the natives
 * Europeans used steel and iron tools which beat the stone tools of the natives
 * Printing press ||

2)Corocodocs Mark Up Sephillia
media type="custom" key="8017072" __//**Summary:**//__ The document presents us with the view in which that most Spanish and Europeans held about the people of the new world. The author introduces us to the fact, that he thinks that strong should rule over the weak. He identifies that those who are wise (the strong), should rule over the dim-witted( the weak). They transfer this to the Spanish being "wise", and the indigenous people as "dim-witted". Soon he also introduces the idea how the Europeans are more civilizied and superior in all aspects to the indigenous people. Claiming that the indigenous people are used as slaves in their society, and that they should be treated "better" with European help. Also he brings up the idea of how their religion and beliefs are inferior to that of those present in Europe. Saying how they worship the "Devil" because of the practice of sacraficing humans. Or how because their is no writting or language, the people are barabaric and their is apparently continious war.

To me this document was complete bs. This author clearly has no idea about the people or the lives of those in the New World. For example he called them barbaric, when the indigenous people such as the Aztecs and Incas, developed vast empires who had less warefare going on than of those in Europe. Also the lack of understanding of the people was also present. He said how they don't care for their history or anything, however the natives pass traditions through word of mouth. When it came to their type of government, he said that the people were treated like slaves by their king, yet that's exactly how they were treated by the Spanish. Also when it came to religion, he didn't understand their traditions. He just called them inferior and barrbaric without learning about them or trying to undrstand. In my opion this author needed to look in a mirrior before saying things about the indigenous people, because he is the one in my opion who is barbaric.

Main Argument: Is that the Spanish should rule over the indengious people due to their superiority in all aspects of life Group:Spanish felt that they were superior in all aspects of life to that of the native indigenous people in the Americas.

Supports: By saying the indengous people practice barbaric ceremonies such as human sacrafice and ccanibilism. They felt that this ment they were worshipping the devil. The socialo organization of Europe has the wise ruling over the dim witted patriarchal society

3) Crocodocs Mark-Up Casas
media type="custom" key="8037048" __//**Summary:**//__ In this document, Casas defend the Indians of the America's, against the points in which Sephivvila used against them. He points out first, that the Spaniards are ignorant in the fact that they feel more superior to a group of people they haven't met, and even using Aristotle's teachings is wrong. He soon begins to raise questions that does make the reader think, "Well how would the Spanish answer?". Naturally a reader would answer these questions as the Spanish would msot likely disagree. For instance a question asked is "Does he think that the war of the Romans against the Spanish was justified in order to free them from barbarism?". Naturally you would assume that Sephillia would deny that the Romans attacked Spain to make them unbarbaric. So naturally you have a counter argument against the beliefs of Sephillia, because he believes that when someone attacks another group of people, it is to make them humane rather than barbaric. One interesting point that Casas brings up is the fact that the Indians had a society much like Spain, it just wasn't as advanced. Over all the document defends the Indians by hinting questions that the Spanish wouldn't be able to answer without making them look like hypocrites.

4) Notes on Portugese Colonies in Brazil
__//**Brazil: The First Plantation Colony**//__
 * In Brazil the Portuguese created the first great plantation colonies in the Americas, growing sugar
 * Natives were used to work on these plantations
 * New discoveries in the colonies led to an import of African slaves


 * The first official landfall of the Portuguese in South America took place in the 1500s, when **Pedro Alvares Cabral** stopped on the Brazilian shore
 * Portugal paid little attention to Brazil for about 30years, until the French tried settling their. Portuguese stopped them and established a settlement in 1532.
 * At first minor nobles were given strips of land or **capitaincies** to colonize and develop


 * A string of settlement extended along the coast on port cities such as Salvador
 * Settlements originally had about 150 sugar plantations, but by 1630 this number doubled
 * Plantations were run by African slaves and natives


 * By 1600 the Brazilian colonies had 100,000 inhabitants
 * 30,000 Europeans and 15,000 black slaves
 * The rest were either native people or people of mixed origins

__Sugar and Slavery__ __MI: The colonies in Brazil were heavily used to produce suger, and the need of workers on plantations, caused for a rise in the slave population, and Brazil was dependant on Portugal__
 * Brazil held its place as the world's leading sugar producer throughout most of the next century
 * Although some free workers were skilled enough to help produce sugar, it was mostly created by slaves
 * Due to the frequent need of slaves, Brazil had a population of about 150,000 slaves, which was half its total population


 * Brazil became the first great plantation colony of its time, which would be used as a model to be followed by other European nations in later times
 * Brazil's social hierarchy reflected its plantation style of life, with class structure being based of the status on plantations
 * White plantations owers, and buearacrats on the top, than mixed people, than slaves at the bottom


 * The Portuguese created an intergrated bureacratic system in the colonies of Brazil, with a ruler in Salvador, who reported back to a council back in the homeland
 * Brazil held stronger ties to Portugal than the Spanish colonies did to Spain, as they required Portugal's assistance when it came to higher education. and publishing of works
 * Brazil lacked its own intellectual life, depending on Portugal for it


 * Missionaries were important in Brazil, especially the Jesuits
 * Held extensive cattle ranches and sugar mills, that supported building of churches and schools
 * Had missions with the native Americans

//__Brazil's Age of Gold__// __MI: After many colonies were able to obtain suger, Brazil became known for its gold amount, and mining was a reoccuring event during the gold rush in Brazil__


 * By 1680s the Dutch, English, and French had established their own sugar plantation colonies in the Caribbean and were producing sugar with slave labor
 * Soon Brazil lost its place as a leading trader of sugar, and the price of sugar soon dropped
 * Other nations began expanding plantations in the Americas, slave ports in Africa, and food producing ports in the New world


 * **Paulistas** was venturing into the heartland of Brazil, when he discovered gold
 * In 1695, gold strikes began to occur in the mountainous region called **Minas Gerais**
 * Soon people deserted the coastal regions and plantations, to head to the interior to join in the gold rush


 * By 1775, there were 150,000 slaves working in Minas Gerais (out of a population of 300,000)
 * Government officials taxed the region to join in on the new wealth occurring
 * Gold production reached its height from 1735 to 1760, and Brazil was the greates source of gold in the western world


 * The discovery of gold, also lead to the discovery of diamonds
 * This caused settlements to become establish, wiping out the native people, and forcing more slaves to be imported
 * Mining led to the city of **Rio de Janeiro** to become the new capital of Brazil, and a leading port city


 * Gold allowed for Portugal to purchase manufacturing goods to develope itself and colonies
 * By the 1760's, the supply of gold began to dwindle
 * After golds downfall, Portugal had become an economic dependency of England

//__**Multiracial Societies**__//
 * Originally society consisted of white Ruopeans who were settlers, than Indian people who were native, and blacks who were slaves
 * A seperation of powers between the Spaniards and the Indians
 * Indians had to pay taxes

__//The Society of Castas//__ __MI:The social structure of life in the world was based on race and place of origin. With people of pure European blood dominating as nobles, mixed people in the middle, and slaves and Indians being at the bottom__
 * As the Spanish remained in the America's, a lack of European women, led to the sexual relations between the white Europeans, and the Indian and black slaves they owned or came into contact with
 * Changed the social structure, so status was based on race
 * Mixed people developed into a middle class, whites were at the top, and pure blooded Indians and slaves at the bottem


 * This new system of social organization based on race was called the **sociedad de castas**
 * Whites were on the top, followed by half bloods/mixes in the middle, and Indians and Blacks on the bottom
 * Mixes had different names such as mestizo, and mulatto


 * Eventually people of mixed origins were so common and around in so many places, of many origins, that they were eventually just called **castas**
 * Originally castas had a good life, not treated as equals, but better than the native and slaves. They usually got jobs as shopkeepers and farmers
 * Originally in 1650 their was only a population of 5% to 10% of castas in the Spanish Americas, however by 1750 that number increased to 35% to 40%


 * As the mixed population grew in the spanish Americas, restrictions were put on them, but their social mobility couldn't be haltered
 * A Indian man could call himself white if he married a Spanish women
 * Physical characteristics were only one criterion of rank and status, as people developed and adopted Spanish ways


 * Originally all whites shared the high ranking status of Spanish society, however over time which continent you were born on played a key role into your actual rank
 * **Peninsulares** were those who were born in Spain, while the **Creoles** were born in the New World
 * Over time an increasing feeling of self identity lead to revoults which led to Independance of the colonies in the New World

__//**The 18th Century Reforms**//__
 * During the 18th century, the intellectual life began to ferment in Spain and Portugal, as well as their colonies
 * Groups of people joined together to form associations called **amigos del pais**, to discuss benefits of reforms
 * Both Portugal and Spanish empires revived, but the empires were eventually led into downfall

__//The Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade//__ __//MI:After tbhe death of King Charles II, the Spanish monarch began to collapse as people began trying to take control the Spanish monarch//__
 * The by the 18th century, the colonial system of the Spanish colonies began to collapse, and Spain began to lose control of the West Indies, and the colonies they had their
 * Occurred because of tensions within Spain itself, such as revolts, wars, and conflicts with other nations
 * Eventually other nations such as the Dutch, French, and English captured island costal territories in the New World, such as Hispaniola being captured by the French


 * Spanish colonial system was not only failing, but its mercantile and political systems were also contributing to its weakening state
 * The fleets of ships that visited the new world began to become irregular, silver payments from the Americas declined, and even ships that carried goods stopped being only Spanish ships
 * The colonies began to become self-sufficiant in basic commodities, as the central government collapsed, and the Americas soon became the prize of Spain


 * The death of the Spanish king, Charles II, led to a conflict of who would inherit the Spanish throne, as he didn't leave an heir
 * **The war of the Spanish succession** began as a result of no heir being established, (lasted 1702 - 1713)
 * The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which established the Bourbon family as ruler of Spain, making Phillip of Anjou, a Bourbon the new ruler of Spain


 * Bourbons allowed for new developments that wrecked the Spanish monopoly
 * French merchants could operate in Seville. and England could trade slaves in the Spanish Americas
 * English ships could sail once a year to trade for silver

__//The Bourbon Reforms//__ __//MI: After the Bourbon family accends to the Spanish throne, they led a seriese of reforms to change Spanish structure of society to become more French like, as they used French models//__
 * The new dynasty of Spain the Bourbon, led a series of reforms by their rulers, such as **Charles III (1759-1788)**
 * These movements were moved by economic, nationalism, and a new desire for a stronger administration
 * The goal was to revive Spain


 * Some groups and institutions opposed these new measures
 * The Jesuit order had alligences to Rome, and rumored wealth, of its missons in the New World
 * The crown didn't attack them directly


 * Reforms were aimed at material improvements and a more powerful state, as a result of being French decent, the Bourbons used a French model
 * New taxation emerged, a navy was built, and the convy fleet system was abandoned
 * New ports opened in 1778, in Spain America, however trade was still restricted to Spanish ships, or those who had a spanish license


 * New vice-royalties were created in New Granda(1739) and Rio de Plata (1778) to provide better administration and defense to the regions of the Americas
 * A royal investigator called **Jose de Galvez** spent six years in Mexico, to reveal the corruption occuring
 * His campains led to Creoles being removed from the upper bureacratic systems


 * Do to Spain now being an ally of France, the Americas were seen as an attacking base for the English
 * Due to the loss of Florida, and the seige of Havana, Spain developed a new military miltia
 * Creoles were given military ranks, and the Spanish control expanded into new areas and grew tighter in existing ones


 * State monopolies occurred as a result of governments considering essentials needed for life from goodsi n the Americas
 * Monopoly rights allowed for people to develop certain colonial areas in return for developing the economy of the region
 * More areas became plantations based on slave work

__//Pombal and Brazil//__
 * Portugal was led at the time by the **Marquis of Pombal**, who had lived in England and observed the benefits of mercantilism firsthand
 * Wanted to break the hold England had on the Brazilian economy, so he set fourth new policies and plans of reform
 * He removed those who stood in the way of the royal power, such as the Jesuits, whom he expelled from the Portuguese empire in 1759


 * Monopoly companies were formed to stimulate agriculture in older plantation zones, and to import large numbers of slaves
 * New crops were introduced, as well as new areas being settled along the Amazonian region
 * Monopoly companies developed a regions economy by developing cotten plantations, exporting cacao, and exporting traditional goods such as sugar, tobacco, and hides


 * Pombal was willing to do social tinkering to allow for his reform to happen
 * He abolished slavery in Portugal, so that more slaves would be imported to the America, and not imported to Portugal
 * He encouraged Indians and whites to marry, so that the people would feel united and defend their region


 * Pombal's policies weren't fully effective, and this was due to a number of issues
 * Brazilian trade suffered only because it couldn't produce most of its products, a reoccuring problem for colonies in the Americas
 * Pombal's policies were effective in the last 20 years of the 18th century, when Brazil would push for independance

//__Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts__//
 * Reform polpcies lead ti higher tax collections, and tge presence of more activist in government
 * This caused a disruption in the old political patterns of power and influence
 * These changes provoked violent colonial reactions


 * Multiple rebellions began to break out in the Americas as a result of the newly changes occuring
 * **Comunero revolt** occurring in New Granda (Columbia), as a result of the government control on liquor and tobacco
 * Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui or **Tupac Amaru**, lead a revolt against the bad governments in Peru


 * The many rebellions were supported by the Creols, castas, and slaves
 * Due to the control of the mother countries however, and fearing a loss of power, many Creols pulled out of revolts to not lose power
 * Eventually these revolts lead to a wanting to be free from the mother countries that would occur in the 19th century